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VITAMINS
AND MINERALS.
Health Benefits, Deficiency, and Toxicity of Vitamin Dietary
Supplement Product
| Vitamin |
Health Benefit |
Deficiency |
Toxicity |
| Fat-Soluble Vitamins
|
| Vitamin A (beta-carotene
or retinol) |
Maintenance of normal vision
and night vision
Essential for immune system
Necessary for growth; induces differentiation of
cells |
Fairly common; results in night
blindness and eye disease, dry pimply skin, increased
infections, and kidney stones |
Unlikely from diet alone, but
supplements and excessive fish oil may produce toxic
symptoms such as increased skull pressure, hair
loss, and blurred vision |
| Vitamin D (calciferols) |
Helps to maintain constant levels
of calcium in the blood
Important in insulin and prolactin secretion, muscle
function, immune and stress response, melanin synthesis,
and cellular differentiation
Vital for kidney and parathyroid gland function
Necessary for healthy bones |
Disease is rickets, not a major
problem in U.S.; symptoms include soft bones and
teeth |
Most people do not take in supplemental
form since the body produces its own via exposure
to the sun
Toxic in doses larger than 1,000-1,1500 I.U.s daily
for a month or longer; produces nausea, weakness,
and irritability
May lead to brain or liver damage, jaundice, and
the destruction of red blood cells |
| Vitamin E (tocopherols)
|
Protects vitamin A from oxidation
during digestion
Enhances immune response
Inhibits carcinogens from reaching target sites
Can stop neurological problems associated with cystic
fibrosis, liver disease early in disease process
Detoxifies free radicals, prevents damage to cell
membranes
Prevents LDL cholesterol from turning into damaging
oxidized LDL, which initiates buildup of arterial
plaque which can lead to heart disease
|
No disease; may produce vague
symptoms and anemia |
Unlikely, although high doses
increase the action of anticoagulant medications
High doses also
interfere with the absorption of other fat-soluble
vitamins, particularly vitamin K |
| Vitamin K (phylloquinone)
|
Helps blood coagulate
In conjunction with vitamins A and D helps body
build bone protein
Given as injection to newborns to help blood clot,
sometimes to women before labor or to patients before
and after surgery |
Rare |
From food it is rare; can occur
with medical treatment
Not sold as a supplement |
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| Vitamin |
Health Benefit |
Deficiency |
Toxicity |
| Water-Soluble Vitamins
|
| Vitamin B-1 (thiamin)
|
Vital for healthy nervous system
and nerve transmission
Essential in converting glucose to energy |
Disease is beriberi
Symptoms of a deficiency include depression, irritability,
attention deficit
Severe deficiency leads to edema,
paralysis, and heart failure |
No toxicity has been reported
by those taking large doses over prolonged periods
of time |
| Vitamin B-2 (riboflavin)
|
Essential for metabolizing carbohydrates,
fats, and lipids and for the degradation of fatty
acids and the synthesis of ATP
Acts as an intermediary in the transfer of electrons
in oxidation-reduction reactions
Necessary for the function of vitamins B-6, folic
acid, and niacin
Involved in formation of red blood cells and maintenance
of body tissues, particularly the skin and eyes
|
Symptoms are dry, scaly skin
on face, oral swelling, and cracking at the corners
of the mouth |
No evidence that high doses have
toxic effects |
| Vitamin B-6 (pyridoxine)
|
Necessary for immune system function,
hormone modulation, gluconeogenesis
Essential in making certain amino acids and turning
others into hormones
Involved in metabolizing polyunsaturated fats and
proteins
Used to build red blood cells and maintain nerve
tissue
Formation of niacin
|
Not common; symptoms include
mouth sores, nausea, nervousness, anemia, convulsions |
High doses over prolonged periods
are very toxic and can cause temporary or permanent
nerve damage |
| Vitamin B-12 (cobalamin)
|
Works with folic acid to
produce red blood cells
Helps build and maintain protective nerve sheaths
Needed for RNA and DNA synthesis |
Pernicious anemia, muscle and
nerve paralysis |
None reported |
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| Vitamin |
Health Benefit |
Deficiency |
Toxicity |
| Water-Soluble Vitamins
(continued) |
| Vitamin C (ascorbic acid |
Activates liver-detoxifying systems
Antioxidant to inactivate highly reactive oxygen
species; protects against damage to lipids and other
molecules
Inhibits formation of carcinogenic compounds
Protects cellular functions
Enhances function of key white blood cells involved
in the destruction of bacteria
Protects vitamin E
Integral to maintenance and building of collagen,
a protein that holds the body's cells in place
Vital to bones and teeth, blood vessels, healing
of wounds, and iron absorption
Helps metabolize several amino acids and hormones
|
Scurvy is the deficiency disease |
Mostly nontoxic; diarrhea is
a side-effect
High doses not recommended for those with genetic
conditions that cause iron overload |
| Biotin |
Key role in metabolizing fats,
carbohydrates, and proteins
Part of a number of enzymes in which it functions
as a carboxyl carrier
Manufactured in lower digestive tract by bacteria
|
Not common; symptoms include
baldness, a rash around the mouth and nose, and
dry, flaky skin |
No evidence of toxicity at high
doses |
| Choline |
Helps maintain central nervous
system
Precursor to acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter
Involved in production and metabolism of fats and
cholesterol
Protects liver from fatty deposits |
Increased fatty deposits in liver,
memory loss, poor muscle coordination |
Nontoxic, but excess consumption
may result in tension headache |
| Folic acid (folate, B
vitamin |
Used by body to break down and
synthesize amino acids
Helps synthesize nucleic acids, which are needed
to build new cells, particularly red blood cells
Involved in a variety of reactions in amino acid
and nucleotide metabolism
Recommended for women of childbearing age; helps
prevent neural tube birth defects |
Leads to anemia similar to that
caused by B-12 deficiency
Can exist without anemia with broad signs including
generalized weakness, easy fatigability, irritability,
and cramps |
Can mask B-12 deficiency (which
causes neurologic problems) at high doses and interfere
with some seizure and cancer drugs |
| Niacin (sometimes called
vitamin B-3) |
Enables body to use
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins (to provide energy),
and amino acids
Influences metabolism of DNA, NAD, NADP
Aids nervous system and digestive tract function
and promotes healthy skin |
Disease is pellagra, rare in
U.S.
Symptoms of deficiency: digestive upsets, insomnia,
headaches, fatigue, sore and swollen tongue (disease
is much worse) |
Symptoms may include itching,
skin flushing, and gastrointestinal distress
Time-released capsules have caused impaired liver
function, reported jaundice, and liver failure
Toxic in high doses
May produce skin discoloration and dryness, decrease
glucose tolerance, produce high uric acid levels,
aggravation of peptic ulcers, and symptoms that
accompany hepatitis |
| Pantothenic Acid |
Necessary for adrenal cortex
function
Part of chemistry of coenzyme A, which is vital
to metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
and involved in making fatty acids, cholesterol,
acetylcholine, steroid hormones, and nerve regulators
|
Can result in abdominal distress,
vomiting, cramps, burning in heels, fatigue, and
insomnia |
No known toxicity, but research
has been inadequate |
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Health Benefits, Claims, Deficiency,
and Toxicity of Leading Mineral Dietary Supplement Products
These claims have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration.
DS products may not include statements that they diagnose, treat,
cure, or prevent disease.
| Mineral |
Health Benefit |
Claims |
Suppor
for Claims |
Deficiency |
Toxicity |
| Calcium-(a) |
Developing
and maintaining healthy bones and teeth
Assists in blood clotting, muscle contraction, nerve
transmission
Involved in production of energy and maintenance
of immune function |
Reduces the
risk of osteoporosis
Prevents
cancer
Useful in
treating high blood pressure; lowers cholesterol;
helps prevent cardiovascular disease
Helps alleviate cramps in the legs
Useful in treating and preventing arthritis
Helps keep skin healthy |
Effect against
osteoporosis proven
Studies suggest may help prevent cancer
Studies say it helps reduce high blood pressure
and CVD; mixed results for lowering cholesterol
Anecdotal evidence it is used for leg cramps and
as a tranquilizer
No evidence for treating arthritis or healthy skin
|
If severe,
may lead to abnormal heartbeat, dementia, muscle
spasms, and convulsions
Brittle, thinning bones (osteoporosis) |
High doses
may cause constipation
and interfere
with kidney
function and
iron absorption
Causes tissue calcification
May cause magnesium deficiency |
| Chromium |
Aids in glucose
metabolism and regulates blood sugar; essential
trace element |
Treatment and
prevention of diabetes
Protects against cardiovascular disease and high
blood pressure
Useful in treating hypoglycemia |
No evidence
that it prevents diabetes, although there is evidence
that it may increase glucose tolerance
Contradictory evidence for protecting against CVD
and high blood pressure
Aid re: hypoglycemia unclear |
Possibly
glucose intolerance, impaired
growth, elevated blood cholesterol,
and fatty deposits in the arteries |
Hexavalent
chromium is
toxic and carcinogenic,
but the dietary
form (trivalent)
has very low
toxicity
Trivalent form
not associated
with any type
of cancer |
| Copper |
Essential trace
element; one of the factors in hemoglobin formulation;
helps stimulate the absorption of iron; plays a
role in respiration
Helps maintain cell membranes; part of enzyme that
protects against cellular damage; prevents peroxidation
of polyunsaturated fatty acids
Involved in production of collagen, elastin, melanin,
and the neurotransmitter noradrenalin
|
Anticancer
substance
Protective against cardiovascular disease
Anti-inflammatory and useful against some forms
of arthritis
Immune booster |
No evidence
for anticancer claims
Studies done, need more re: protection against CVD
Promising studies as an anti-inflammatory agent;
need more work
Role in human immune system needs clarification
|
Second most
common
trace metal
deficiency occurring
during intravenous feeding
Symptoms include anemia that is unresponsive
to iron, lowered white blood
cell count, and loss of bone density (osteoporosis)
|
Relatively
nontoxic |
| Iodine |
Integral part
of the thyroid hormones that have important metabolic
roles; factor in the thyroid gland's regulation
of energy production |
Protects against
toxic effects from radioactive materials
Relieves pain and soreness from fibrocystic breasts
Good for loosening up clogged mucus in the breathing
tubes
Good antiseptic
|
Does protect
from toxic effects of radioactive materials
More research needed for fibrocystic breast relief
Iodine containing drugs (need prescription) are
useful for loosening coughs
Effective in purifying back-country water (not elemental)
|
Major cause
of hypothyroidism in the world
Symptoms include chronic fatigue,
apathy, dry
skin, intolerance to cold, weight gain, and enlargement
of the thyroid |
High doses
may aggravate
acne (rare from
diet or typical supplement consumption)
High doses
may lead to a
temporary block
of hormone
synthesis and temporary hyperthyroidism
Over prolonged periods, high
doses may
result in hyperthyroidism
High doses
greater than 50 milligrams/day
may lead to inflammation of
the salivary
glands, which is easily reversed |
| Iron |
Necessary in
red blood cell formation and function
Protection from oxidant damage; maintenance of the
immune system
Backbone of energy-producing process
Involved in the production of carnitine, collagen,
elastin, several brain neurotransmitters |
Prevents and
cures iron-deficiency anemia
Anticarcinogenic
Boosts physical performance
Prevents learning disorders in children |
Prevents iron-deficiency
anemia
Anticancer evidence is meager; appears to play an
important role in cellular immunity
More research needed for muscular performance claim
Evidence says may help prevent learning disorders
in kids |
Iron-deficiency
anemia (significant decrease in number of red blood
cells), which means decreased oxygenation of tissues
and symptoms of fatigue and muscle weakness (Note:
iron is the treatment for this deficiency)
Associated with Plummer-Vision Syndrome, when there
is difficulty in swallowing solid food because a
web-like membrane grows across the esophagus (Note:
supplementation has been found to eliminate this
condition) |
Toxic after
prolonged usage; reports are rare
Some concern
that unbound
iron can generate free radicals
and be
destructive to
cells, but usually occurs just with certain genetic
disorders
Over
supplementation
may cause
abdominal pain, diarrhea, or constipation |
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| Mineral |
Health Benefit |
Claims |
Support for
Claims |
Deficiency |
Toxicity |
| Magnesium |
Activates nearly
100 enzymes; helps nerves and muscles function;
necessary for every major biological process (e.g.,
glucose metabolism, production of cellular energy,
and the synthesis of protein and nucleic acids)
Regulator of calcium flow within cells; collaborates
with calcium in the production of biologic energy
|
Protects against
cardiovascular disease and helps in treatment of
high
blood pressure
Helps in treating PMS
Helps prevent kidney and gallstones
Treats prostate problems
Useful in treating polio, postpolio syndrome
Helps fight depression
Helps in treating neuromuscular and nervous disorders
Good for treating convulsions in pregnant women
to prevent premature labor
Helps with diarrhea, vomiting, and indigestion |
Conflicting
findings about role in CVD, but have found that
magnesium plays an important role in the maintenance
of the electrical and physical integrity of the
heart muscle
Insufficient research in helping PMS
No evidence that is helpful in treating gallstones,
but evidence exists that it is helpful in preventing
calcium oxalate kidney stones in people who have
this recurrent problem
No evidence to support this
No evidence to support this
No evidence to support this
Intravenous magnesium used to treat this
No evidence of benefit for those with these symptoms
unless symptoms are due to magnesium deficiency
Early symptoms of deficiency; products on market
containing magnesium actually cause diarrhea, and
it is used in laxatives |
Loss of appetite,
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, confusion, tremors,
loss of coordination, and occasionally fatal convulsions
Sometimes associated with calcium and potassium
deficiencies at the same time
Marginal deficiency is common |
People with
impaired kidney function can accumulate magnesium,
which can be fatal
Those with high-grade atrioventricular blocks or
bifascicular blocks should not take (could slow
heart rate)
No evidence it is harmful other than in these two
instances |
| Manganese |
Essential part
of several enzyme systems, involved in protein and
energy metabolism |
Antioxidant
Important for normal function of the brain, effective
in treating schizophrenia and other nervous disorders
Necessary for reproduction
Needed for normal bone structure and helpful in
treating osteoarthritis
Necessary for normal glucose metabolism and beneficial
in treating diabetes mellitus |
Not clear;
needs more research
Appears to be involved in synthesis of neurotransmitters
in brain, anecdotal reports that it works on schizophrenia,
but no scientific reports
Not demonstrated in humans
Need more research
No evidence in humans nor for treating diabetes
|
Not documented
in humans; only one report of man who was on a manganese-deficient
diet for 4 months |
Dietary form
has low toxicity, inhaled dust can cause serious
neurologic disease |
| Molybdenum |
Necessary for
several enzymes |
May be an antioxidant,
protect against cancer
May be a detoxifier of potentially hazardous substances
(sulfiting agents for preserving drugs and food)
Protects teeth
Prevents sexual impotence
Prevents anemia and mobilizes iron |
No evidence
supplementation protects against cancer
No evidence supplementation protects against cancer
No clinical support
No evidence
Role not thought to be significant |
Only one report
of deficiency, from a patient fed intravenously |
Noted in animals
due to antagonism of copper |
| Phosphorous |
Works with
calcium to develop and maintain strong bones and
teeth; enhances use of other nutrients
Component of cell membranes
Important in vital biologic processes (storage and
processing of biological information, cellular communication,
energy production, and integrity of tissue) |
Increases endurance
in athletes
Fights fatigue, overall good tonic |
If adequate
phosphate intake, supplementation will not boost
energy only if suffering from depletion (if alcoholic,
antacid user, various medical conditions)
Homeopathic remedies claim this, no adequate research
on its effectiveness |
Rare, although
severe deficiency could lead to seizures, coma,
and death
Depletion has been reported in those taking antacids
between 2 and 12 years because antacids contain
magnesium and aluminum, both of which prevent the
absorption of phosphate into the body |
Toxic; treatment
of deficiency should be administered by physician |
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